exmacmillan
Length and width
length

noun

a measurement of how long something is in size
width

noun

the distance from one side of something to the other
depth

noun

the distance from the front to the back of something, for example a cupboard or drawer
breadth

noun

the distance from one side of an object to the other
span

noun

the width of something
spread

noun

the width of something
girth

noun

the distance round something thick and round, for example a tree
length

noun

the distance from one end of something to the other
gauge

noun

a way of saying how thick something is, especially something made of metal, wire, or plastic
thickness

noun

the measurement of how thick something is

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Exercise
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word according to the text.
In modern times, the expansion of (1) is mainly through word-formation. The major means of word?formation are (2) , (3)and (4) . It is estimated that affixation supplies modern English with (5)percent of its new vocabulary, (6)gives 28 to 30 per cent and 26 percent of new words come from (7). Shortening, such as clipping, (8)etc. also plays an important role in the development of vocabulary, resulting in amount up to eight to (9) percent.
Answer
1. vocabulary 2. affixation 3. compounding 4. conversion 5. 30-40
6. compounding 7. conversion 8. acronymy 9. ten
close

Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word according to the text.
Affixation, also called (1), is the formation of new words by adding affixes to (2). While (3) is to create new words by adding prefixes to bases, suffixation makes new words by adding (4) to stems. Generally speaking, prefixes do not change part of (5) of the stems but their (6) whereas (7) do.
Answer

1. derivation 2. stems 3. prefixation 4. suffixes
5. speech 6. meaning 7. suffixes
close

What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?

Answer
The best way to classify prefixes is in accordance with meaning because prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but its meaning.　　　　　　　　close


Form negatives of each of the following words by using one of these prefixes dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, non-, un-.

Answer

close

Match Column A with Column B and give two examples for each.
A

B

Examples
Trans

before

mono

over, above

super

one

auto-

many

sub-

self

mal-

little, small

multi-

bad, badly

mini-

below

pre-

across

ex-

former



Answer
trans- = across: transcontinental, transword
mono- = one: monorail, nonoculture
super- = over, above: superstructure, supernatural
auto- = self: autobiography, automobile
sub- = bad, badly: malpractice, malnutrition
mini- = little, small: minicrisis, miniwar
pre- = before: prehistorical, preelection
ex- = former: ex-teacher, ex-filmer
close

Close

1. Have a knowledge of the major means of word-formation;
2. Understand the contribution of each means in proportion to other means;
3. Learn how to classify prefixes;
4. Learn how to form new words with prefix.



Objectives
Main points
Introduction

Affixation
Prefixation
Exercise
TOP

Unit 5





● Word Formation II
●● Introduction
The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. There is a variety of means being at work now. The most productive are affixation, , compounding, and conversion, . According to Pyles and Algeo (1982), words produced through affixation constitute 30% to 40% of the total number of new words; compounding yields 28% to 30% of all the new words; conversion gives us 26% of the new vocabulary. The rest of the new words come from shortening, including clipping, and acronymy, , amounting to 8% to 10%, together with 1% to 5% of words born out of blending, and other means.
Talking about word-forming patterns means dealing with rules. But a rule of word-formation usually differs from a syntactic rule. Not all the words that are produced by applying the rule are acceptable. For example, the existence of the actual English words unclean, unwise, unfair does not ensure the acceptance of * unexcelled. Therefore, rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words are created from day to day. Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certain extent. For instance, affixes and compounding processes may become productive on one time, e.g. de-, non-, -teria, -wise (defog, non-hero, cafeteria, weatherwise) or lose their productivity, e.g. the Old English -th which is found in warmth, length, depth, width, breadth derived from adjectives warm, long, deep, wide, broad is no longer used to form new words, * coolth (Quirk, et al 1985). By word-formation processes, we concentrate on productive or on marginally productive rules. While applying the rules, we should remember that there are always exceptions.
●● Affixation
4.1 Affixation.
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivaional affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, , for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses: prefixation, and suffixation, .
●●● Prefixation
4.1.1 Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, e.g. asleep a. (a- + v), encourage v. (en- + n), unearth v. (un- + n), de-oil v. (de- + n), postwar a. (post- + n), intercollege a. (inter- + n) and others. These make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary.
The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change meanings of the stems. Accordingly, we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into eight groups.
1.Negative prefixes: a-, dis- in-(il-,ir-,im-), non-, un-, e.g. amoral (nonmoral), apolitical (not political); disloyal (not loyal), disobey (not obey); injustice (without justice), illegal (not legal), irresistible (not to be resisted), immature (not mature); non-smoker (not a smoker), non-classical (not classical); unfair (not fair), unwilling (not willing). Of this group, un- is by far the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adjectives for actual use as in unreplaceable, unmovable for irreplaceable and immovable.
2.Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-, e.g. decentralize (give greater powers for self-government), de-compose (separate into parts); disunite (become separate), disallow (refuse to allow); unhorse (cause to fall from a horse), unwrap (open). The prefixes of this group can all be found in the previous class. The reason for their separation lies in the meaning.
3. Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-, e.g. maltreat (treat badly), malpractice (wrongdoing); misconduct (bad behaviour), mistrust (not to trust); pseudo-friend (false friend), pseudo-science (false science).
4. Prefixes of degree or size: arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under-, e.g. archbishop (a priest in charge of bishops in a large area); extra-strong (very strong), hyperactive (extremely active); macrocosm (the universe); microcomputer (very small computer); mini-election (small-scale election); outlive (live longer than); overweight (weighing more than normal); subheading (secondary heading); superfreeze (freeze to a very low temperature); surtax (tax too much); ultra-conservative (extremely conservative); underdeveloped (less developed).
5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-, e.g. anti-nuclear, anti-government; contraflow (the arrangement for the traffic to go on both directions on one side of the road); pro-student (on the side of the student), pro-democracy (supporting democracy).
6. Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-, e.g. extraordinary (more than ordinary), extramarital (outside marriage); forehead, forearm; inter-city (between cities), interpersonal (concerning relations between people); intra-party (within the party); telecommunication (communication by telephone, radio, television, etc.); trans-world (across
the, world), transcontinental (across the continent).
7. Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-, e.g. ex-professor (former professor), ex-student (former student); foretell (tell before happening), foreknowledge (knowledge before happening); post-election (after election); pre-prepared (prepared beforehand); reconsider (consider again).
8. Number prefixes: bi-, multi-(poly_), semi-(hemi-), tri-, uni-(mono-), e.g. bicycle, bilingual (concerning two languages); multi-purpose (more than one purpose), polysyllable (more than one syllable); semi-naked (half naked), hemisphere (a half of the earth on either side of equator); tricycle (a vehicle with three wheels); uniform (not different), monorail (one rail).
9. Miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-, e.g. autobiography (biography written by oneself), neo-Nazi (new Nazi); pan-European (the whole of Europe); vice-chairman (deputy chairman).

Some highly productive prefixes:
de-: meaning "negation, reversal, removal"
decentralize, depenalize, defocus, depoliticize, defrost, defog, deschool (abolish 　　　　traditional schools), devalue (lessen the value of), defeather, depost, deplane, detrain 　　　　(get off)
non-: added to nouns, adjectives and adverbs, meaning "not, not important, of little value, not 　　　　traditional"
non-scientific, non-musician, non-additive, non-book, non-friend, non-hero, 　　　　non-novel, non-topic, con-conversation
anti-: traditionally meaning "against, preventing"
anti-crime, anti-fat, anti-noise
newly meaning "against traditional characteristics"
anti-art, anti-music, anti-novelist, anti-theatre
E.g. In my happier nightmare," he adds, "I see myself attending an anti-play with an 　　　　anti-audience after a dinner prepared by an anti-cook."
mini-: meaning "very small"
mini-cinema, min-crisis, mini-war, mini-election, mini-boom, mini-lecture, 　　　　mini-bikini, mini-by-pass



home contact us previous unit next unit


Exercise
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word according to the text.
In modern times, the expansion of (1) is mainly through word-formation. The major means of word?formation are (2) , (3)and (4) . It is estimated that affixation supplies modern English with (5)percent of its new vocabulary, (6)gives 28 to 30 per cent and 26 percent of new words come from (7). Shortening, such as clipping, (8)etc. also plays an important role in the development of vocabulary, resulting in amount up to eight to (9) percent.
Answer
1. vocabulary 2. affixation 3. compounding 4. conversion 5. 30-40
6. compounding 7. conversion 8. acronymy 9. ten
close

Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word according to the text.
Affixation, also called (1), is the formation of new words by adding affixes to (2). While (3) is to create new words by adding prefixes to bases, suffixation makes new words by adding (4) to stems. Generally speaking, prefixes do not change part of (5) of the stems but their (6) whereas (7) do.
Answer

1. derivation 2. stems 3. prefixation 4. suffixes
5. speech 6. meaning 7. suffixes
close

What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?

Answer
The best way to classify prefixes is in accordance with meaning because prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but its meaning.　　　　　　　　close


Form negatives of each of the following words by using one of these prefixes dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, non-, un-.

Answer

close

Match Column A with Column B and give two examples for each.
A

B

Examples
Trans

before

mono

over, above

super

one

auto-

many

sub-

self

mal-

little, small

multi-

bad, badly

mini-

below

pre-

across

ex-

former



Answer
trans- = across: transcontinental, transword
mono- = one: monorail, nonoculture
super- = over, above: superstructure, supernatural
auto- = self: autobiography, automobile
sub- = bad, badly: malpractice, malnutrition
mini- = little, small: minicrisis, miniwar
pre- = before: prehistorical, preelection
ex- = former: ex-teacher, ex-filmer
close

Close

1. Have a knowledge of the major means of word-formation;
2. Understand the contribution of each means in proportion to other means;
3. Learn how to classify prefixes;
4. Learn how to form new words with prefix.



Objectives
Main points
Introduction

Affixation
Prefixation
Exercise
TOP

Unit 5





● Word Formation II
●● Introduction
The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. There is a variety of means being at work now. The most productive are affixation, , compounding, and conversion, . According to Pyles and Algeo (1982), words produced through affixation constitute 30% to 40% of the total number of new words; compounding yields 28% to 30% of all the new words; conversion gives us 26% of the new vocabulary. The rest of the new words come from shortening, including clipping, and acronymy, , amounting to 8% to 10%, together with 1% to 5% of words born out of blending, and other means.
Talking about word-forming patterns means dealing with rules. But a rule of word-formation usually differs from a syntactic rule. Not all the words that are produced by applying the rule are acceptable. For example, the existence of the actual English words unclean, unwise, unfair does not ensure the acceptance of * unexcelled. Therefore, rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words are created from day to day. Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certain extent. For instance, affixes and compounding processes may become productive on one time, e.g. de-, non-, -teria, -wise (defog, non-hero, cafeteria, weatherwise) or lose their productivity, e.g. the Old English -th which is found in warmth, length, depth, width, breadth derived from adjectives warm, long, deep, wide, broad is no longer used to form new words, * coolth (Quirk, et al 1985). By word-formation processes, we concentrate on productive or on marginally productive rules. While applying the rules, we should remember that there are always exceptions.
●● Affixation
4.1 Affixation.
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivaional affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, , for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subclasses: prefixation, and suffixation, .
●●● Prefixation
4.1.1 Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. However, present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, e.g. asleep a. (a- + v), encourage v. (en- + n), unearth v. (un- + n), de-oil v. (de- + n), postwar a. (post- + n), intercollege a. (inter- + n) and others. These make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary.
The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief function is to change meanings of the stems. Accordingly, we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into eight groups.
1.Negative prefixes: a-, dis- in-(il-,ir-,im-), non-, un-, e.g. amoral (nonmoral), apolitical (not political); disloyal (not loyal), disobey (not obey); injustice (without justice), illegal (not legal), irresistible (not to be resisted), immature (not mature); non-smoker (not a smoker), non-classical (not classical); unfair (not fair), unwilling (not willing). Of this group, un- is by far the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adjectives for actual use as in unreplaceable, unmovable for irreplaceable and immovable.
2.Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-, e.g. decentralize (give greater powers for self-government), de-compose (separate into parts); disunite (become separate), disallow (refuse to allow); unhorse (cause to fall from a horse), unwrap (open). The prefixes of this group can all be found in the previous class. The reason for their separation lies in the meaning.
3. Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-, e.g. maltreat (treat badly), malpractice (wrongdoing); misconduct (bad behaviour), mistrust (not to trust); pseudo-friend (false friend), pseudo-science (false science).
4. Prefixes of degree or size: arch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under-, e.g. archbishop (a priest in charge of bishops in a large area); extra-strong (very strong), hyperactive (extremely active); macrocosm (the universe); microcomputer (very small computer); mini-election (small-scale election); outlive (live longer than); overweight (weighing more than normal); subheading (secondary heading); superfreeze (freeze to a very low temperature); surtax (tax too much); ultra-conservative (extremely conservative); underdeveloped (less developed).
5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-, e.g. anti-nuclear, anti-government; contraflow (the arrangement for the traffic to go on both directions on one side of the road); pro-student (on the side of the student), pro-democracy (supporting democracy).
6. Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-, e.g. extraordinary (more than ordinary), extramarital (outside marriage); forehead, forearm; inter-city (between cities), interpersonal (concerning relations between people); intra-party (within the party); telecommunication (communication by telephone, radio, television, etc.); trans-world (across
the, world), transcontinental (across the continent).
7. Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-, e.g. ex-professor (former professor), ex-student (former student); foretell (tell before happening), foreknowledge (knowledge before happening); post-election (after election); pre-prepared (prepared beforehand); reconsider (consider again).
8. Number prefixes: bi-, multi-(poly_), semi-(hemi-), tri-, uni-(mono-), e.g. bicycle, bilingual (concerning two languages); multi-purpose (more than one purpose), polysyllable (more than one syllable); semi-naked (half naked), hemisphere (a half of the earth on either side of equator); tricycle (a vehicle with three wheels); uniform (not different), monorail (one rail).
9. Miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-, e.g. autobiography (biography written by oneself), neo-Nazi (new Nazi); pan-European (the whole of Europe); vice-chairman (deputy chairman).

Some highly productive prefixes:
de-: meaning "negation, reversal, removal"
decentralize, depenalize, defocus, depoliticize, defrost, defog, deschool (abolish 　　　　traditional schools), devalue (lessen the value of), defeather, depost, deplane, detrain 　　　　(get off)
non-: added to nouns, adjectives and adverbs, meaning "not, not important, of little value, not 　　　　traditional"
non-scientific, non-musician, non-additive, non-book, non-friend, non-hero, 　　　　non-novel, non-topic, con-conversation
anti-: traditionally meaning "against, preventing"
anti-crime, anti-fat, anti-noise
newly meaning "against traditional characteristics"
anti-art, anti-music, anti-novelist, anti-theatre
E.g. In my happier nightmare," he adds, "I see myself attending an anti-play with an 　　　　anti-audience after a dinner prepared by an anti-cook."
mini-: meaning "very small"
mini-cinema, min-crisis, mini-war, mini-election, mini-boom, mini-lecture, 　　　　mini-bikini, mini-by-pass


Exercise
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word according to the text.
In modern times, the expansion of (1) is mainly through word-formation. The major means of word?formation are (2) , (3)and (4) . It is estimated that affixation supplies modern English with (5)percent of its new vocabulary, (6)gives 28 to 30 per cent and 26 percent of new words come from (7). Shortening, such as clipping, (8)etc. also plays an important role in the development of vocabulary, resulting in amount up to eight to (9) percent.
Answer
1. vocabulary 2. affixation 3. compounding 4. conversion 5. 30-40
6. compounding 7. conversion 8. acronymy 9. ten
close

Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word according to the text.
Affixation, also called (1), is the formation of new words by adding affixes to (2). While (3) is to create new words by adding prefixes to bases, suffixation makes new words by adding (4) to stems. Generally speaking, prefixes do not change part of (5) of the stems but their (6) whereas (7) do.
Answer

1. derivation 2. stems 3. prefixation 4. suffixes
5. speech 6. meaning 7. suffixes
close

girth Look up girth at Dictionary.com
c.1300, "belt around a horse's body," from O.N. gjorð "girdle, belt, hoop," from P.Gmc. *gertu- (cf Goth. gairda "girdle"), from the same source as gird. Sense of "measurement around an object" first recorded 1640s.
surcingle Look up surcingle at Dictionary.com
"a girth for a horse," late 14c., from O.Fr. surcengle, from sur- "over" + cengle "a girdle," from L. cingulum "girth" (see cinch).
cinch Look up cinch at Dictionary.com
1859, Amer.Eng., "saddle-girth," from Sp. cincha "girdle," from L. cingulum "a girdle, a swordbelt," from cingere "to surround, encircle," from PIE base *kenk- "to gird, encircle." Replaced earlier surcingle. Sense of "an easy thing" is 1898, via notion of "a sure hold" (1888). The verb is first recorded 1866. Related: Cinched; cinching.